Appendix A. A summary of data gathered from papers used in this meta-analysis.
For each study, we provide a reference (see Appendix B for full citations), a list of the taxa involved, a brief summary of the trait-mediated interaction (TMI), details about the study system (ecosystem, food chain length, TMI mechanism, and whether or not TMI and density-mediated interaction (DMI) effects were in opposite directions), and experimental methods (experimental scale, experimental duration, what effects were reported in the original reference, and what variable was measured). We provide the magnitude of trait-mediated effects relative to total predator effects (the response ratio), the log response ratio used for statistical analysis, and the variance of the log response ratio. The number of experimental treatment replicates, and the number of individuals within each treatment replicate (where available) are provided separately. Finally, we document the source of our data from the relevant reference.
TABLE A1. A summary of studies used for meta-analysis of trait-mediated effect sizes.
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| 1 | Beckerman et al. (1997) | Pisurina mira, nursery web hunting spider |
Melanoplus femurrubrum,
red-legged grasshopper |
Grasshoppers reduce feeding rates in the presence of spiders. | terrestrial | field | 60 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | grasshopper density | 0.6667 | 0.5108 | 1.1285 | 20 | 8 | Table 1 | ||
| 2 | Blaustein (1997) | Salamandra infraimmaculata,
fire salamander |
Arctodiaptomus similis, calanoid copepod | Cues from predatory salamanders cause crustaceans to delay hatching. | freshwater | lab | 50 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | Crustacean density | 1.0000 | 0.6931 | 0.0022 | 5 | n/a | Fig. 1 | ||
| 2 | Blaustein (1997) | Ceriodaphnia quadrangula, cladocera | Cues from predatory salamanders cause crustaceans to delay hatching. | freshwater | lab | 50 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | Crustacean density | 0.9885 | 0.6874 | 0.1144 | 5 | n/a | Fig. 2 | |||
| 2 | Blaustein (1997) | Salamandra infraimmaculata,
fire salamander |
Cyzicus sp., clam shrimp | Cues from predatory salamanders cause crustaceans to delay hatching. | freshwater | lab | 50 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | Crustacean density | 0.9325 | 0.6588 | 0.0060 | 5 | n/a | Fig. 1 | ||
| 3 | Brodin and Johansson (2002) | Perca fluviatilis, perch |
Lestes sponsa, damselfly |
Perch reduce damselfly foraging behavior; non-lethal perch do not. | freshwater | field | 150 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | number of prey emerging as adults | 0.0237 | 0.0234 | 2.8142 | 6, 12 | 33 | Text, p. 319 | ||
| 3 | Brodin and Johansson (2002) | Perca fluviatilis, perch |
Lestes sponsa, damselfly |
Daphnia magna, zooplankton |
Perch reduce damselfly foraging behavior; non-lethal perch do not. | freshwater | field | 150 | three-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | yes | zooplankton density | 0.0243 | 0.0240 | 12.8879 | 6 | n/a | Fig. 1 | |
| 4 | Crowder et al. (1997) | wading birds | Paralichthys lethostigma,
southern flounder |
Leiostomus xanthurus, spot |
Predatory birds cause spot to aggregate making them harder for flounder to catch. | marine | field | 15 | two-level | predator inhibition | DMI, TMI | no | daily per capita mortality of spot | 0.9636 | 0.6748 | 0.0003 | 4 | 395 | Table 2 | |
| 5 | Dahl (1998) | Cottus gobio, bullhead |
Baetis rhodani, mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 31 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | daily per capita mortality and drift | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 2500.0016 | 4 | n/a | Text, pg. 429 | ||
| 5 | Dahl (1998) | Cottus gobio, bullhead |
Leuctra sp., stonefly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 31 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | daily per capita mortality and drift | 0.0015 | 0.0015 | 2500.2402 | 4 | n/a | Text, pg. 429 | ||
| 5 | Dahl (1998) | Cottus gobio, bullhead |
Pacifastacus leniusculus,
signal crayfish |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 31 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | daily per capita mortality and drift | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 2500.0509 | 4 | n/a | Text, pg. 429 | ||
| 5 | Dahl (1998) | Cottus gobio, bullhead |
Limnephilidae, caddisfly | Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 31 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | daily per capita mortality and drift | 0.0006 | 0.0006 | 2500.0204 | 4 | n/a | Text, pg. 429 | ||
| 5 | Dahl (1998) | Cottus gobio, bullhead |
Gammarus pulex, isopod |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 31 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | daily per capita mortality and drift | 0.5957 | 0.4673 | 0.0148 | 4 | n/a | Text, pg. 429 | ||
| 5 | Dahl (1998) | Salmo trutta, brown trout |
Baetis rhodani, mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 31 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | daily per capita mortality and drift | 0.0010 | 0.0010 | 2500.0297 | 4 | n/a | Text, pg. 429 | ||
| 6 | Diehl et al. (2000) | Salmo trutta, brown trout |
Baetis bicaudatus, mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 66 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | emigration and mortality rates | 0.3000 | 0.2624 | 0.5883 | 6 | n/a | Fig. 4 | ||
| 7 | Eitam et al. (2002) | Anisops sardea, backswimmer |
Culiseta longiareolata,
mosquito |
Mosquitoes avoid ovipositing in presence of predator. | freshwater | field | 11 | two-level | emigration | TMI, Total | no | number of larvae and pupae surviving | 0.4599 | 0.3783 | 0.0004 | 6 | 45 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 7 | Eitam et al. (2002) | Anisops sardea, backswimmer |
Culiseta laticinctus, mosquito |
Mosquitoes avoid ovipositing in presence of predator. | freshwater | field | 11 | two-level | emigration | TMI, Total | no | number of larvae and pupae surviving | 0.4925 | 0.4004 | 0.0383 | 6 | 30 | Fig. 2 | ||
| 7 | Eitam et al. (2002) | Anisops sardea, backswimmer |
Forcipomyia sp., fly |
Flies avoid ovipositing in presence of predator. | freshwater | field | 25 | two-level | emigration | TMI, Total | yes | number of pupae surviving | 3.5610 | 1.5175 | 0.6039 | 6 | n/a | Fig. 3 | ||
| 7 | Eitam et al. (2002) | Anisops sardea, backswimmer |
Chironomus riparius, midge |
Midges avoid ovipositing in presence of predator. | freshwater | field | 25 | two-level | emigration | TMI, Total | yes | number of pupal exuviae | 1.0428 | 0.7143 | 0.1038 | 6 | n/a | Fig. 4 | ||
| 7 | Eitam et al. (2002) | Anisops sardea, backswimmer |
Daphnia sp. | Daphnia eggs enter diapause in presence of predator | freshwater | field | 22 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | daphnia density | 0.7210 | 0.5429 | 0.0202 | 6 | n/a | Fig. 5 | ||
| 8 | Eklöv and Van Kooten (2001) | Esox lucius, pike |
Perca fluviatilis, perch |
Rutilus rutilus, roach |
Increased mortality of roach caused by perch facilitation of pike. | freshwater | field | 130 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | roach mortality | 0.2055 | 0.1869 | 0.0117 | 5 | 80 | Fig. 1A | |
| 9 | Eklöv and Werner (2000) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 1 (smallest) | Bluegill consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.2509 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 1 (smallest) | Anax consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal bluegill cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 0.0267 | 0.0263 | 0.1034 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 2 | Anax consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal bluegill cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 1.0000 | 0.6931 | 0.0005 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 2 | Bluegill consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 50000.0000 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 3 | Anax consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal bluegill cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 1.0000 | 0.6931 | 0.0055 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 3 | Bluegill consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0004 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 4 | Anax consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal bluegill cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 1.0000 | 0.6931 | 0.0009 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 4 | Bluegill consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0001 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 5 | Bluegill consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 1.0000 | 0.6931 | 0.0205 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 5 | Anax consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal bluegill cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0001 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 1 (smallest) | Anax consume greenfrogs Nonlethal bluegill cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 0.4800 | 0.3920 | 0.0838 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 1 (smallest) | Bluegill consume greenfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 8 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 0.6014 | 0.4708 | 0.0063 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 2 | Anax consume greenfrogs Nonlethal bluegill cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 1.5063 | 0.9188 | 0.0096 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 2 | Bluegill consume greenfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 0.1103 | 0.1047 | 0.0165 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 3 | Anax consume greenfrogs Nonlethal bluegill cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 4.2000 | 1.6487 | 0.3096 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 3 | Bluegill consume greenfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 0.2362 | 0.2120 | 0.0569 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 4 | Anax consume greenfrogs Nonlethal bluegill cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 0.2439 | 0.2183 | 0.2031 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 4 | Bluegill consume greenfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 0.2442 | 0.2185 | 0.0420 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 5 | Anax consume greenfrogs Nonlethal bluegill cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 4 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 1.0000 | 0.6931 | 0.0056 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 5 | Bluegill consume greenfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0160 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 11 | Feltmate and Williams (1989) | Oncorhynchus mykiss, rainbow trout |
Paragnetina media, stonefly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 4 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | stonefly density | 0.5746 | 0.4540 | 0.0725 | 3 | n/a | Fig. 2 | ||
| 12 | Flach and de Bruin (1994) | Crangon crangon, shrimp |
Corophium volutator, C. arenarium, amphipods |
Predator effect is enhanced in the presence of competitors (the lugworm Arenicola marina and the cockle Cerastoderma edule) that make amphipods move around more. | marine | field | 28 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | amphipod density | 2.3931 | 1.2217 | 12.1040 | 4 | n/a | Fig. 6A | ||
| 12 | Flach and de Bruin (1994) | Crangon crangon, shrimp |
Corophium volutator, C. arenarium, amphipods |
Predator effect is enhanced in the presence of competitors (the lugworm Arenicola marina and the cockle Cerastoderma edule) that make amphipods move around more. | marine | field | 28 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | amphipod density | 0.5947 | 0.4667 | 90.2204 | 4 | n/a | Fig. 6B | ||
| 12 | Flach and de Bruin (1994) | Crangon crangon, shrimp |
Corophium volutator, C. arenarium, amphipods |
Predator effect is enhanced in the presence of competitors (the lugworm Arenicola marina and the cockle Cerastoderma edule) that make amphipods move around more. | marine | lab | 6 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | amphipod mortality | 0.7863 | 0.5802 | 0.0006 | 9 | 200 | Fig. 4 | ||
| 12 | Flach and de Bruin (1994) | Crangon crangon, shrimp |
Corophium volutator, C. arenarium, amphipods |
Predator effect is enhanced in the presence of competitors (the lugworm Arenicola marina and the cockle Cerastoderma edule) that make amphipods move around more. | marine | lab | 6 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | amphipod mortality | 0.8883 | 0.6357 | 0.0019 | 9 | 200 | Fig. 4 | ||
| 12 | Flach and de Bruin (1994) | Multiple predators | Corophium volutator, C. arenarium, amphipods |
Predator effect is enhanced in the presence of competitors (the lugworm Arenicola marina and the cockle Cerastoderma edule) that make amphipods move around more. | marine | field | 21 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | amphipod density | 0.5283 | 0.4242 | 0.0004 | 6 | 200 | Fig. 8 | ||
| 12 | Flach and de Bruin (1994) | Multiple predators | Corophium volutator, C. arenarium, amphipods |
Predator effect is enhanced in the presence of competitors (the lugworm Arenicola marina and the cockle Cerastoderma edule) that make amphipods move around more. | marine | field | 21 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | amphipod density | 0.5872 | 0.4619 | 0.0024 | 6 | 200 | Fig. 8 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Baetis sp., mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent drifting; percent consumed | 0.8666 | 0.6241 | 0.6623 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Baetis sp., mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent drifting; percent consumed | 0.9461 | 0.6658 | 0.2579 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Paraleptophlebia sp., mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent drifting; percent consumed | 0.9212 | 0.6530 | 1.0184 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Paraleptophlebia sp., mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent drifting; percent consumed | 0.8002 | 0.5879 | 0.6858 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Ephemerella sp., mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent drifting; percent consumed | 0.8764 | 0.6293 | 0.9440 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Ephemerella sp., mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | yes | percent drifting; percent consumed | 1.4653 | 0.9023 | 12.2114 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Eurylophella sp., Mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent drifting; percent consumed | 0.2500 | 0.2231 | 91.3961 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Eurylophella sp., Mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | yes | percent drifting; percent consumed | 1.2071 | 0.7917 | 0.6533 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Stenonema sp., mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent drifting; percent consumed | 0.3576 | 0.3057 | 0.3219 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Stenonema sp., mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent drifting; percent consumed | 0.1422 | 0.1330 | 0.3741 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 14 | Fraser and Gilliam (1992) | Hoplias malabaricus, fish |
Large-sized Poecilia reticulata,
guppy |
Prey emigrate to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent of fish emigrating or dying | 0.9380 | 0.6617 | 0.0043 | 4 | 8 | Table 1 | ||
| 14 | Fraser and Gilliam (1992) | Hoplias malabaricus, fish |
Small-sized Poecilia reticulata,
guppy |
Prey emigrate to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent of fish emigrating or dying | 0.6006 | 0.4704 | 0.0595 | 4 | 8 | Table 1 | ||
| 14 | Fraser and Gilliam (1992) | Hoplias malabaricus, fish |
Large-sized Rivulus hartii,
jumping guabine |
Prey emigrate to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent of fish emigrating or dying | 0.6921 | 0.5260 | 0.0773 | 4 | 4 | Table 1 | ||
| 14 | Fraser and Gilliam (1992) | Hoplias malabaricus, fish |
Small-sized Rivulus hartii,
jumping guabine |
Prey emigrate to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent of fish emigrating or dying | 0.7504 | 0.5598 | 0.0077 | 4 | 8 | Table 1 | ||
| 15 | Grabowski, In Press | Opsanus tau, oyster toadfish |
Panopeus herbstii, mud crab |
Crassostrea virginica, oyster |
Prey hide from predators, lowering feeding rate | marine | lab | 6 | three-level | reduced activity | DMI, TMI, Total | no | percent oyster mortality | 0.9820 | 0.6841 | 0.0008 | 5 | 40 | Fig. 2 | |
| 15 | Grabowski, In Press | Opsanus tau, oyster toadfish |
Panopeus herbstii, mud crab |
Crassostrea virginica, oyster |
Prey hide from predators, lowering feeding rate | marine | lab | 7 | three-level | reduced activity | DMI, TMI, Total | yes | percent oyster mortality | 0.9560 | 0.6709 | 0.0013 | 5 | 40 | Fig. 2 | |
| 16 | Hansson (2000) | Daphnia magna, zooplankton |
Gonyostomum semen, algae |
Algae reduce recruitment rate in presence of predator | freshwater | lab | 5 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | yes | recruitment rate (cells per meter per day) | 0.6674 | 0.5113 | 0.0073 | 4 | 20 | Figs. 6, 7 | ||
| 16 | Hansson (2000) | Daphnia magna, zooplankton |
Gonyostomum semen, algae |
Algae reduce recruitment rate in presence of predator | freshwater | lab | 5 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | recruitment rate (cells per meter per day) | 0.0313 | 0.0308 | 6.6198 | 4 | 20 | Figs. 6, 7 | ||
| 16 | Hansson (2000) | Daphnia magna, zooplankton |
Anabaena sp., algae |
Anabaena benefits from predator presence because of reduced competition from other algae that have delayed recruitment | freshwater | lab | 5 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | recruitment rate (cells per meter per day) | 0.0744 | 0.0718 | 0.0179 | 4 | 20 | Figs. 6, 7 | ||
| 17 | Hurd and Eisenberg (1984) | Old field predators - not specified | Tenodera sinensis, Chinese mantid |
Prey emigrate to avoid predators | terrestrial | field | 65 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | cumulative percent mortality and dispersal | 0.9228 | 0.6538 | 0.0001 | 3 | 12595 | Table 1, 'High' | ||
| 17 | Hurd and Eisenberg (1984) | Old field predators - not specified | Tenodera sinensis, Chinese mantid |
Prey emigrate to avoid predators | terrestrial | field | 65 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | cumulative percent mortality and dispersal | 0.9350 | 0.6601 | 0.0001 | 3 | 4189 | Table 1, 'Medium' | ||
| 17 | Hurd and Eisenberg (1984) | Old field predators - not specified | Tenodera sinensis, Chinese mantid |
Prey emigrate to avoid predators | terrestrial | field | 65 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | cumulative percent mortality and dispersal | 0.9389 | 0.6621 | 0.0001 | 3 | 1303 | Table 1, 'Low' | ||
| 18 | Kelly et al. (2002) | Salmo salar, salmon |
Gammarus duebeni, amphipod |
Baetis rhodani, mayfly | Carnivorous amphipod Gammarus duebeni celticus increases drift of mayfly nymphs, thereby increasing contact with predatory salmon. | freshwater | lab | 0.125 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of Baetis eaten by salmon | 0.9736 | 0.6798 | 0.0046 | 12 | 10 | Fig. 6 | |
| 18 | Kelly et al. (2002) | Salmo salar, salmon |
Gammarus duebeni, amphipod |
Baetis rhodani, mayfly | Carnivorous amphipod Gammarus pulex increases drift of mayfly nymphs, thereby increasing contact with predatory salmon. | freshwater | lab | 0.125 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of Baetis eaten by salmon | 0.9729 | 0.6795 | 0.0094 | 12 | 10 | Fig. 6 | |
| 19 | Kratz (1996) | Doroneuria baumanni, stonefly |
Baetis bicaudata, mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1.5 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | per capita prey emigration or mortality, per predator | 0.2449 | 0.2191 | 0.0057 | 2 | 100 | Fig. 3 | ||
| 19 | Kratz (1996) | Doroneuria baumanni, stonefly |
Baetis bicaudata, mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1.5 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | per capita prey emigration or mortality, per predator | 0.6506 | 0.5011 | 0.0001 | 2 | 200 | Fig. 3 | ||
| 19 | Kratz (1996) | Doroneuria baumanni, stonefly |
Baetis bicaudata, mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1.5 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | per capita prey emigration or mortality, per predator | 0.5328 | 0.4271 | 0.0001 | 2 | 300 | Fig. 3 | ||
| 19 | Kratz (1996) | Doroneuria baumanni, stonefly |
Baetis bicaudata, mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1.5 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | per capita prey emigration or mortality, per predator | 0.3035 | 0.2650 | 0.0012 | 2 | 400 | Fig. 3 | ||
| 19 | Kratz (1996) | Doroneuria baumanni, stonefly |
Baetis bicaudata, mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1.5 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | per capita prey emigration or mortality, per predator | 0.2586 | 0.2300 | 0.0002 | 2 | 800 | Fig. 3 | ||
| 19 | Kratz (1996) | Doroneuria baumanni, stonefly |
Baetis bicaudata, mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1.5 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | per capita prey emigration or mortality, per predator | 0.5275 | 0.4236 | 0.0001 | 2 | 1600 | Fig. 3 | ||
| 20 | Lancaster (1990) | Doroneuria baumanni, stonefly |
Baetis sp., mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 25 | two-level | emigration | TMI, Total | no | daily per capita mortality and drift | 5.0857 | 1.8059 | 0.0533 | 10 | n/a | Table 3, Fig. 3A | ||
| 20 | Lancaster (1990) | Doroneuria baumanni, stonefly |
Chironomidae, flies | Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 25 | two-level | emigration | TMI, Total | no | daily per capita mortality and drift | 0.1306 | 0.1227 | 0.2975 | 10 | n/a | Table 3, Fig. 3B | ||
| 21 | Losey and Denno (1998a) | Harpalus faunus, ground beetle |
Coccinella septempunctata,
ladybird beetle |
Acyrthosiphon pisum, pea aphid |
Aphids drop off plants to avoid foliar predator, increase exposure to ground predator. | terrestrial | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | aphids eaten/day | 0.2289 | 0.2061 | 0.0032 | 8 | 30 | Fig. 4: A. pisum | |
| 21 | Losey and Denno (1998a) | Harpalus faunus, ground beetle |
Coccinella septempunctata,
ladybird beetle |
Acyrthosiphon pisum, pea aphid |
Aphids drop off plants to avoid foliar predator, increase exposure to ground predator. | terrestrial | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | aphids eaten/day | 0.0643 | 0.0623 | 0.0388 | 8 | 30 | Fig. 4: A. kondoi | |
| 22 | Losey and Denno (1998b) | Harpalus faunus, ground beetle |
Coccinella septempunctata,
ladybird beetle |
Acyrthosiphon pisum, pea aphid |
Aphids drop off plants to avoid foliar predator, increase exposure to ground predator. | terrestrial | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | aphids eaten/day | 0.0692 | 0.0669 | 0.0613 | 11 | 30 | Fig. 2 | |
| 22 | Losey and Denno (1998b) | Harpalus faunus, ground beetle |
Coccinella septempunctata,
ladybird beetle |
Acyrthosiphon pisum, pea aphid |
Aphids drop off plants to avoid foliar predator, increase exposure to ground predator. | terrestrial | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | aphids eaten/day | 0.2162 | 0.1958 | 0.0118 | 11 | 30 | Fig. 2 | |
| 22 | Losey and Denno (1998b) | Harpalus faunus, ground beetle |
Coccinella septempunctata,
ladybird beetle |
Acyrthosiphon pisum, pea aphid |
Aphids drop off plants to avoid foliar predator, increase exposure to ground predator. | terrestrial | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | aphids eaten/day | 0.4389 | 0.3638 | 0.0072 | 11 | 30 | Fig. 2 | |
| 23 | McIntosh and Townsend (1996) | Galaxias vulgaris, river galaxia |
Stream invertebrates | Algae | Presence of predatory fish reduces invertebrate activity; reduced feeding increases algae on rocks. | freshwater | field | 14 | three-level | reduced activity | DMI , TMI | no | algal density (ash free dry mass) | 1.0003 | 0.6933 | 0.0017 | 3 | 4 | Fig. 4 | |
| 23 | McIntosh and Townsend (1996) | Galaxias vulgaris, river galaxia |
Stream invertebrates | Algae | Presence of predatory fish reduces invertebrate activity; reduced feeding increases algae on rocks. | freshwater | field | 14 | three-level | reduced activity | DMI†, TMI | yes | algal density (ash free dry mass) | 1.1343 | 0.7581 | 0.0134 | 3 | 4 | Fig. 4 | |
| 23 | McIntosh and Townsend (1996) | Galaxias vulgaris, river galaxia |
Stream invertebrates | Algae | Presence of predatory fish reduces invertebrate activity; reduced feeding increases algae on rocks. | freshwater | field | 14 | three-level | reduced activity | DMI†, TMI | yes | algal density (ash free dry mass) | 1.0601 | 0.7228 | 0.0036 | 3 | 4 | Fig. 4 | |
| 23 | McIntosh and Townsend (1996) | Salmo trutta, brown trout |
Stream invertebrates | Algae | Presence of predatory fish reduces invertebrate activity; reduced feeding increases algae on rocks. | freshwater | field | 14 | three-level | reduced activity | DMI†, TMI | yes | algal density (ash free dry mass) | 1.1117 | 0.7475 | 0.0249 | 3 | 4 | Fig. 4 | |
| 23 | McIntosh and Townsend (1996) | Salmo trutta, brown trout |
Stream invertebrates | Algae | Presence of predatory fish reduces invertebrate activity; reduced feeding increases algae on rocks. | freshwater | field | 14 | three-level | reduced activity | DMI†, TMI | yes | algal density (ash free dry mass) | 1.0360 | 0.7110 | 0.0025 | 3 | 4 | Fig. 4 | |
| 24 | Moran and Hurd (1994) | cursorial spiders | Tenodera sinensis, Chinese mantid |
Mantids emigrate to escape spiders | terrestrial | field | 13 | two-level | emigration | TMI, Total | no | number of mantids captured emigrating or remaining in enclosures | 0.1463 | 0.1366 | 0.0007 | 5 | 120 | Text, pg. 270 | ||
| 25 | Nelson et al. (2004) | Nabis sp., damselbug |
Acyrthosiphon pisum, pea aphid |
Predators interrupt prey feeding activity | terrestrial | field | 28 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | population growth rate | 0.7759 | 0.5743 | 0.0109 | 22-24 | 12 | Fig. 3 | ||
| 25 | Nelson et al. (2004) | Nabis sp., damselbug |
Acyrthosiphon pisum, pea aphid |
Predators interrupt prey feeding activity | terrestrial | field | 14 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | population growth rate | 0.3910 | 0.3301 | 0.0050 | 45-55 | 10 | Fig. 3 | ||
| 26 | Pierce (1988) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Tetragoneuria cynosura,
Ladona deplanata, dragonflies |
Prey avoid colonizing habitats with predators | freshwater | field | 120 | two-level | emigration | TMI, Total | yes | dragonfly density | 1.0811 | 0.7329 | 0.0539 | 8 | n/a | Fig. 1 | ||
| 26 | Pierce (1988) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Tetragoneuria cynosura,
Ladona deplanata, dragonflies |
Prey avoid colonizing habitats with predators | freshwater | field | 120 | two-level | emigration | TMI, Total | yes | dragonfly density | 1.1328 | 0.7575 | 0.0463 | 8 | n/a | Fig. 1 | ||
| 27 | Rahel and Stein (1988) | Orconectes rusticus, crayfish | Micropterus dolomieu, smallmouth bass |
Etheostoma nigrum, johnny darter |
Crayfish eat darters and facilitate bass predation. | freshwater | lab | 0.02 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI, Total | no | number of darters eaten | 0.0651 | 0.0630 | 19.0806 | 16 | 8 | Fig. 1 | |
| 27 | Rahel and Stein (1988) | Orconectes rusticus, crayfish | Micropterus dolomieu, smallmouth bass |
Etheostoma nigrum, johnny darter |
Crayfish eat darters and facilitate bass predation. | freshwater | lab | 0.02 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI, Total | no | number of darters eaten | 0.0042 | 0.0042 | 199.2117 | 16 | 8 | Fig. 1 | |
| 28 | Relyea (2002) | Anax longipes | Hyla versicolor, gray treefrog | None observed | freshwater | lab | 13 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | yes | percent of tadpoles surviving | 0.0860 | 0.0825 | 0.0413 | 6 | 60 | Fig. 2 | ||
| 29 | Relyea and Yurewicz (2002) | Anax sp., dragonfly |
Rana clamitans, green frog |
Predators reduce foraging activity | freshwater | lab | 21 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | survival over 3 weeks | 0.0252 | 0.0249 | 0.0101 | 5 | 200 | Fig. 3 | ||
| 29 | Relyea and Yurewicz (2002) | Ambystoma tigrinum, tiger salamander |
Rana clamitans, green frog |
Predators reduce foraging activity | freshwater | lab | 21 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | survival over 3 weeks | 0.0055 | 0.0055 | 0.0927 | 5 | 200 | Fig. 3 | ||
| 29 | Relyea and Yurewicz (2002) | Anax sp., Ambystoma tigrinum, both as predators |
Rana clamitans, green frog |
Predators reduce foraging activity | freshwater | lab | 21 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | survival over 3 weeks | 0.0616 | 0.0598 | 0.0039 | 5 | 200 | Fig. 3 | ||
| 30 | Roitberg et al. (1979) | Coccinella californica,
ladybird beetle |
Acyrthosiphon pisum, pea aphid |
Aphids jump off plants to avoid foliar predators, increasing mortality. | terrestrial | field | 5 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | mortality to predators, or on ground | 0.4000 | 0.3365 | 0.0113 | 12 | 15 | Table 4 | ||
| 30 | Roitberg et al. (1979) | Coccinella californica,
ladybird beetle |
Acyrthosiphon pisum, pea aphid |
Aphids jump off plants to avoid foliar predators, increasing mortality. | terrestrial | field | 5 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | mortality to predators, or on ground | 0.4667 | 0.3830 | 0.0078 | 12 | 15 | Table 4 | ||
| 30 | Roitberg et al. (1979) | Coccinella californica,
ladybird beetle |
Acyrthosiphon pisum, pea aphid |
Aphids jump off plants to avoid foliar predators, increasing mortality. | terrestrial | field | 5 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | mortality to predators, or on ground | 0.6323 | 0.4900 | 0.0009 | 12 | 15 | Table 4 | ||
| 31 | Rudgers et al. (2003) | Forelius pruinosus, ant |
Bucculatrix thurberiella,
cotton leaf perforator moth |
Gossypium thurberi, wild cotton |
Predators reduce leaf damage by killing caterpillars, and by reducing caterpillar foraging rates | terrestrial | field | 365 | three-level | reduced activity | DMI, TMI, Total | no | increase in prey density compared to plants with ants; increase in plant damage compared to plants with ants | 0.4465 | 0.3691 | 0.0080 | 28 | 15 | Text, pg. 54 | |
| 31 | Rudgers et al. (2003) | Forelius pruinosus, ant |
Bucculatrix thurberiella,
cotton leaf perforator moth |
Gossypium thurberi, wild cotton |
Predators reduce leaf damage by killing caterpillars, and by reducing caterpillar foraging rates | terrestrial | field | 730 | three-level | reduced activity | DMI, TMI, Total | no | increase in prey density compared to plants with ants; increase in plant damage compared to plants with ants | 0.5912 | 0.4645 | 0.0025 | 31 | 15 | Text, pg. 54 | |
| 32 | Schmitz (1998) | Pisurina mira, nursery web hunting spider |
Melanoplus femurrubrum, red-legged grasshopper | Grasshoppers reduce feeding rates in presence of spiders. | terrestrial | field | 60 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | grasshopper density | 1.5000 | 0.9163 | 2.1498 | 10 | 6 | Table 3 | ||
| 32 | Schmitz (1998) | Pisurina mira, nursery web hunting spider |
Chorthippus curtipennis, grasshopper | Grasshoppers reduce feeding rates in presence of spiders. | terrestrial | field | 60 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | grasshopper density | 1.5000 | 0.9163 | 0.5589 | 10 | 6 | Table 3 | ||
| 32 | Schmitz (1998) | Pisurina mira, nursery web hunting spider |
Melanoplus femurrubrum, red-legged grasshopper | grasses | Grasshoppers reduce feeding rates in presence of spiders. | terrestrial | field | 60 | three-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | grass biomass | 1.2920 | 0.8294 | 0.1156 | 10 | 6 | Fig. 4 | |
| 32 | Schmitz (1998) | Pisurina mira, nursery web hunting spider |
Chorthippus curtipennis, grasshopper | grasses | Grasshoppers reduce feeding rates in presence of spiders. | terrestrial | field | 60 | three-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | grass biomass | 2.1970 | 1.1622 | 0.2689 | 10 | 6 | Fig. 4 | |
| 32 | Schmitz (1998) | Pisurina mira, nursery web hunting spider |
Melanoplus femurrubrum, red-legged grasshopper | herbs | Grasshoppers reduce feeding rates in presence of spiders. | terrestrial | field | 60 | three-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | herb biomass | 0.3205 | 0.2780 | 0.2309 | 10 | 6 | Fig. 4 | |
| 32 | Schmitz (1998) | Pisurina mira, nursery web hunting spider |
Chorthippus curtipennis, grasshopper | herbs | Grasshoppers reduce feeding rates in presence of spiders. | terrestrial | field | 60 | three-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | yes | herb biomass | 1.4643 | 0.9019 | 3.2082 | 10 | 6 | Fig. 4 | |
| 33 | Schmitz et al. (1997) | Pisurina mira, nursery web hunting spider |
Melanoplus femurrubrum, red-legged grasshopper | Grasshoppers reduce feeding rates in presence of spiders. | terrestrial | field | 30 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | grasshopper density | 0.6760 | 0.5164 | 0.0653 | 8 | 10 | Fig. 5 | ||
| 33 | Schmitz et al. (1997) | Pisurina mira, nursery web hunting spider |
Melanoplus femurrubrum, red-legged grasshopper | grasses | Grasshoppers reduce feeding rates in presence of spiders. | terrestrial | field | 30 | three-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | grass biomass | 0.2085 | 0.1894 | 0.1920 | 8 | 10 | Fig. 6 | |
| 33 | Schmitz et al. (1997) | Pisurina mira, nursery web hunting spider |
Melanoplus femurrubrum, red-legged grasshopper | forbs | Grasshoppers reduce feeding rates in presence of spiders. | terrestrial | field | 30 | three-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | forb biomass | 1.1778 | 0.7783 | 0.3752 | 8 | 10 | Fig. 6 | |
| 34 | Scrimgeour and Culp (1994) | Rhinichthys cataractae,
longnose dace |
Classenia sabulosa, stonefly |
Baetis tricaudatus, mayfly | Stonefly reduces feeding rate in presence of predator | freshwater | lab | 0.04 | three-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | mean attack rate (number of attacks/hour/larvae) by Claassenia | 0.9807 | 0.6834 | 0.0086 | 5 | 1 | Tables 2 and 3 | |
| 34 | Scrimgeour and Culp (1994) | Rhinichthys cataractae,
longnose dace |
Classenia sabulosa, stonefly |
Baetis tricaudatus, mayfly | Stonefly reduces feeding rate in presence of predator | freshwater | lab | 0.04 | three-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | mean attack rate (number of attacks/hour/larvae) by Claassenia | 0.9810 | 0.6836 | 0.0101 | 5 | 1 | Tables 2 and 3 | |
| 35 | Scrimgeour et al. (1991) | Baetis tricaudatus, mayfly |
Benthic algae | Herbivores eat algae, but their foraging activities also loosens algae from surface. | freshwater | lab | 0.04 | two-level | algal disturbance | DMI, TMI | no | loss of algal biomass and consumption rate by mayflies (mg/h) | 0.6437 | 0.4970 | 0.2225 | 5 | 5 | Figs. 2, 3, and 4 | ||
| 35 | Scrimgeour et al. (1991) | Baetis tricaudatus, mayfly |
Benthic algae | Herbivores eat algae, but their foraging activities also loosens algae from surface. | freshwater | lab | 0.04 | two-level | algal disturbance | DMI, TMI | no | loss of algal biomass and consumption rate by mayflies (mg/h) | 0.8053 | 0.5907 | 0.0089 | 5 | 5 | Figs. 2, 3, and 4 | ||
| 35 | Scrimgeour et al. (1991) | Baetis tricaudatus, mayfly |
Benthic algae | Herbivores eat algae, but their foraging activities also loosens algae from surface. | freshwater | lab | 0.04 | two-level | algal disturbance | DMI, TMI | no | loss of algal biomass and consumption rate by mayflies (mg/h) | 0.8430 | 0.6114 | 0.0025 | 5 | 5 | Figs. 2, 3, and 4 | ||
| 35 | Scrimgeour et al. (1991) | Baetis tricaudatus, mayfly |
Benthic algae | Herbivores eat algae, but their foraging activities also loosens algae from surface. | freshwater | lab | 0.04 | two-level | algal disturbance | DMI, TMI | no | loss of algal biomass and consumption rate by mayflies (mg/h) | 0.9481 | 0.6668 | 0.0115 | 5 | 5 | Figs. 2, 3, and 4 | ||
| 35 | Scrimgeour et al. (1991) | Baetis tricaudatus, mayfly |
Benthic algae | Herbivores eat algae, but their foraging activities also loosens algae from surface. | freshwater | lab | 0.04 | two-level | algal disturbance | DMI, TMI | no | loss of algal biomass and consumption rate by mayflies (mg/h) | 0.9532 | 0.6695 | 0.0033 | 5 | 5 | Figs. 2, 3, and 4 | ||
| 35 | Scrimgeour et al. (1991) | Baetis tricaudatus, mayfly |
Benthic algae | Herbivores eat algae, but their foraging activities also loosens algae from surface. | freshwater | lab | 0.04 | two-level | algal disturbance | DMI, TMI | no | loss of algal biomass and consumption rate by mayflies (mg/h) | 0.5410 | 0.4324 | 0.0607 | 5 | 5 | Figs. 2, 3, and 4 | ||
| 35 | Scrimgeour et al. (1991) | Baetis tricaudatus, mayfly |
Benthic algae | Herbivores eat algae, but their foraging activities also loosens algae from surface. | freshwater | lab | 0.04 | two-level | algal disturbance | DMI, TMI | no | loss of algal biomass and consumption rate by mayflies (mg/h) | 0.6863 | 0.5225 | 0.0147 | 5 | 5 | Figs. 2, 3, and 4 | ||
| 35 | Scrimgeour et al. (1991) | Baetis tricaudatus, mayfly |
Benthic algae | Herbivores eat algae, but their foraging activities also loosens algae from surface. | freshwater | lab | 0.04 | two-level | algal disturbance | DMI, TMI | no | loss of algal biomass and consumption rate by mayflies (mg/h) | 0.8617 | 0.6215 | 0.0021 | 5 | 5 | Figs. 2, 3, and 4 | ||
| 35 | Scrimgeour et al. (1991) | Baetis tricaudatus, mayfly |
Benthic algae | Herbivores eat algae, but their foraging activities also loosens algae from surface. | freshwater | lab | 0.04 | two-level | algal disturbance | DMI, TMI | no | loss of algal biomass and consumption rate by mayflies (mg/h) | 0.9374 | 0.6613 | 0.0033 | 5 | 5 | Figs. 2, 3, and 4 | ||
| 35 | Scrimgeour et al. (1991) | Baetis tricaudatus, mayfly |
Benthic algae | Herbivores eat algae, but their foraging activities also loosens algae from surface. | freshwater | lab | 0.04 | two-level | algal disturbance | DMI, TMI | no | loss of algal biomass and consumption rate by mayflies (mg/h) | 0.6902 | 0.5248 | 0.1953 | 5 | 5 | Figs. 2, 3, and 4 | ||
| 35 | Scrimgeour et al. (1991) | Baetis tricaudatus, mayfly |
Benthic algae | Herbivores eat algae, but their foraging activities also loosens algae from surface. | freshwater | lab | 0.04 | two-level | algal disturbance | DMI, TMI | no | loss of algal biomass and consumption rate by mayflies (mg/h) | 0.9147 | 0.6495 | 0.0241 | 5 | 5 | Figs. 2, 3, and 4 | ||
| 35 | Scrimgeour et al. (1991) | Baetis tricaudatus, mayfly |
Benthic algae | Herbivores eat algae, but their foraging activities also loosens algae from surface. | freshwater | lab | 0.04 | two-level | algal disturbance | DMI, TMI | no | loss of algal biomass and consumption rate by mayflies (mg/h) | 0.9416 | 0.6635 | 0.0021 | 5 | 5 | Figs. 2, 3, and 4 | ||
| 35 | Scrimgeour et al. (1991) | Baetis tricaudatus, mayfly |
Benthic algae | Herbivores eat algae, but their foraging activities also loosens algae from surface. | freshwater | lab | 0.04 | two-level | algal disturbance | DMI, TMI | no | loss of algal biomass and consumption rate by mayflies (mg/h) | 0.9477 | 0.6666 | 0.0014 | 5 | 5 | Figs. 2, 3, and 4 | ||
| 35 | Scrimgeour et al. (1991) | Baetis tricaudatus, mayfly |
Benthic algae | Herbivores eat algae, but their foraging activities also loosens algae from surface. | freshwater | lab | 0.04 | two-level | algal disturbance | DMI, TMI | no | loss of algal biomass and consumption rate by mayflies (mg/h) | 0.9732 | 0.6797 | 0.0080 | 5 | 5 | Figs. 2, 3, and 4 | ||
| 36 | Soluk and Collins (1988) | Cottus bairdi, sculpin |
Agnetina capitata, stonefly |
Baetis tricaudatus, mayfly |
Sculpins reduce stonefly feeding rate on mayflies. | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, Total | yes | number of mayflies eaten (DMI:# eaten by sculpins; TMI # eaten by stoneflies) | 1.8660 | 1.0529 | 0.0013 | 5 | 150 | Fig. 3 | |
| 36 | Soluk and Collins (1988) | Agnetina capitata, stonefly |
Cottus bairdi, sculpin |
Ephemerella subvaria, mayfly |
Stoneflies facilitate sculpin feeding on mayflies | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, Total | no | number of mayflies eaten (DMI:# eaten by stoneflies TMI # eaten by sculpins | 0.6830 | 0.5206 | 0.0040 | 6 | 75 | Fig. 6 | |
| 37 | Stamp and Bowers (1988) | Polistes dominulus and P. fuscatus, Vespid wasps | Hemileuca lucina, Saturniidae catepillars | None observed | terrestrial | field | 11 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | number of catepillars surviving out of 25 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0081 | 5 | 25 | Text | ||
| 38 | Stamp and Bowers (1991) | Polistes dominulus, Polistes fuscatus, wasps |
Hemileuca lucina, moth |
Prey reduce feeding rate in presence of predators | terrestrial | field | 11 | two-level | reduced activity | DMI, TMI, Total | no | caterpillar mortality | 0.3350 | 0.2889 | 0.0078 | 15 | 25 | Table 2 | ||
| 39 | Stamp and Bowers (1993) | Podisus maculiventris, stinkbug |
Junonia coenia, butterfly |
Prey reduce feeding rate in presence of predators | terrestrial | field | 12 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | caterpillar mortality | 0.0267 | 0.0263 | 0.0019 | 15 | 4 | Table 2 | ||
| 39 | Stamp and Bowers (1993) | Polistes fuscatus, wasps |
Junonia coenia, butterfly |
Prey reduce feeding rate in presence of predators | terrestrial | field | 13 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | caterpillar mortality | 0.0410 | 0.0402 | 0.0352 | 15 | 4 | Table 2 | ||
| 40 | Stav et al. (2000) | Anax imperator, dragonfly |
Chironomidae, midge fly | Dragonfly both eats and scares away prey | freshwater | field | 100 | two-level | emigration | TMI, Total | no | number of exuviae per pool | 0.6867 | 0.5228 | 1.5840 | 6 | n/a | Fig. 3A | ||
| 40 | Stav et al. (2000) | Anax imperator, dragonfly |
Ceratopogonidae, fly | Dragonfly both eats and scares away prey | freshwater | field | 100 | two-level | emigration | TMI, Total | yes | number of exuviae per pool | 0.3621 | 0.3090 | 1.1869 | 6 | n/a | Fig. 3B | ||
| 40 | Stav et al. (2000) | Anax imperator, dragonfly |
Daphnia sp. | Dragonfly both eats and scares away prey | freshwater | field | 100 | two-level | emigration | TMI, Total | yes | number | 0.1038 | 0.0987 | 1.5624 | 6 | n/a | Fig. 4A | ||
| 40 | Stav et al. (2000) | Anax imperator, dragonfly |
Heterocypris | Dragonfly both eats and scares away prey | freshwater | field | 100 | two-level | emigration | TMI, Total | yes | number | 4.6538 | 1.7323 | 17.5004 | 6 | n/a | Fig. 4B | ||
| 40 | Stav et al. (2000) | Anax imperator, dragonfly |
Culiseta longiareolata,
mosquito |
Dragonfly both eats and scares away prey | freshwater | field | 100 | two-level | emigration | TMI, Total | yes | number of exuviae per pool | 0.6355 | 0.4920 | 3.7683 | 6 | n/a | Fig. 2D | ||
| 40 | Stav et al. (2000) | Anax imperator, dragonfly |
Culiseta longiareolata,
mosquito |
periphyton | Dragonfly both eats and scares away ovipositing mosquitoes, leading to trophic cascade in the food web | freshwater | field | 100 | three-level | emigration | TMI, Total | yes | periphyton biomass | 1.0543 | 0.7199 | 0.0856 | 6 | 4 | Fig. 5A | |
| 40 | Stav et al. (2000) | Anax imperator, dragonfly |
Culiseta longiareolata,
mosquito |
Phytoplankton | Dragonfly both eats and scares away ovipositing mosquitoes, leading to trophic cascade in the food web | freshwater | field | 42 | three-level | emigration | TMI, Total | yes | phytoplankton biomass | 1.0377 | 0.7118 | 0.8133 | 6 | 1 | Fig. 5B | |
| 41 | Stelzer and Lamberti (1999) | Etheostoma caeruleum, rainbow darter |
Orconectes propinquus, crayfish |
Macroinvertebrates | Darters reduce crayfish consumption of invertebrates. | freshwater | field | 42 | two-level | reduced activity | DMI, TMI | no | percent difference in density compared to exclosures | 1.3462 | 0.8528 | 0.2436 | 5 | n/a | Fig. 1 | |
| 41 | Stelzer and Lamberti (1999) | Etheostoma caeruleum, rainbow darter |
Orconectes propinquus, crayfish |
Chironomidae | Darters reduce crayfish consumption of invertebrates. | freshwater | field | 42 | two-level | reduced activity | DMI, TMI | no | percent difference in density compared to exclosures | 0.8864 | 0.6347 | 10.6195 | 5 | n/a | Fig. 4 | |
| 41 | Stelzer and Lamberti (1999) | Etheostoma caeruleum, rainbow darter |
Orconectes propinquus, crayfish |
Baetidae | Darters reduce crayfish consumption of invertebrates. | freshwater | field | 42 | two-level | reduced activity | DMI, TMI | no | percent difference in density compared to exclosures | 0.0955 | 0.0912 | 81.2614 | 5 | n/a | Fig. 4 | |
| 41 | Stelzer and Lamberti (1999) | Etheostoma caeruleum, rainbow darter |
Orconectes propinquus, crayfish |
Hydroptilidae | Darters reduce crayfish consumption of invertebrates. | freshwater | field | 42 | two-level | reduced activity | DMI, TMI | no | percent difference in density compared to exclosures | 0.2200 | 0.1989 | 7.7786 | 5 | n/a | Fig. 4 | |
| 41 | Stelzer and Lamberti (1999) | Etheostoma caeruleum, rainbow darter |
Orconectes propinquus, crayfish |
Copepoda | Darters reduce crayfish consumption of invertebrates. | freshwater | field | 42 | two-level | reduced activity | DMI, TMI | no | percent difference in density compared to exclosures | 0.4415 | 0.3657 | 6.6122 | 5 | n/a | Fig. 4 | |
| 41 | Stelzer and Lamberti (1999) | Etheostoma caeruleum, rainbow darter |
Orconectes propinquus, crayfish |
Ancylidae | Darters reduce crayfish consumption of invertebrates. | freshwater | field | 42 | two-level | reduced activity | DMI, TMI | no | percent difference in density compared to exclosures | 0.6200 | 0.4824 | 4.2911 | 5 | n/a | Fig. 4 | |
| 41 | Stelzer and Lamberti (1999) | Etheostoma caeruleum, rainbow darter |
Orconectes propinquus, crayfish |
Tricorythidae | Darters reduce crayfish consumption of invertebrates. | freshwater | field | 42 | two-level | reduced activity | DMI, TMI | no | percent difference in density compared to exclosures | 0.2080 | 0.1890 | 4.8396 | 5 | n/a | Fig. 4 | |
| 41 | Stelzer and Lamberti (1999) | Etheostoma caeruleum, darter |
Orconectes propinquus, crayfish |
periphyton | Darters reduce crayfish consumption of invertebrates. | freshwater | field | 44 | three-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | yes | percent difference in density compared to exclosures | 0.0976 | 0.0931 | 3.5491 | 5 | n/a | Fig. 3 | |
| 42 | Stoks et al. (1999) | Aeshna cyanea, dragonfly |
Lestes sponsa, damselfly |
Reduced foraging due to anti-predator behaviors. | freshwater | field | 11 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | number surviving of 20 | 0.1090 | 0.1034 | 0.0021 | 4 | 20 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 42 | Stoks et al. (1999) | Aeshna cyanea, dragonfly |
Lestes sponsa, damselfly |
Reduced foraging due to anti-predator behaviors. | freshwater | field | 11 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | yes | number surviving of 20 | 1.1883 | 0.7831 | 0.0008 | 4 | 20 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 43 | Tamaki et al. (1970) | Aphidius smithi, wasp |
Acyrthosiphon pisum, pea aphid |
Reduced feeding activity in presence of predator | terrestrial | field | 7 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | aphid density | 0.4917 | 0.3999 | 0.0479 | 8 | 3 | Fig. 6 | ||
| 44 | Turner and Mittelbach (1990) | Micropterus salmoides, largemouth bass |
Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill |
Daphnia pulex, cladoceran |
Bluegill avoid bass predation by hiding in macrophyte vegetation and avoid openwater, releasing openwater zooplankton from predation. | freshwater | field | 70 | three-level | spatial shift | DMI†, TMI | no | zooplankton density | 1.0000 | 0.6931 | 0.0045 | 4 | 400 | Fig. 1 | |
| 44 | Turner and Mittelbach (1990) | Micropterus salmoides, largemouth bass |
Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill |
Diaphanosoma brachyurum,
cladoceran |
Bluegill avoid bass predation by hiding in macrophyte vegetation and avoid openwater, releasing openwater zooplankton from predation. | freshwater | field | 70 | three-level | spatial shift | DMI†, TMI | no | zooplankton density | 1.0000 | 0.6931 | 0.0001 | 4 | 400 | Fig. 1 | |
| 44 | Turner and Mittelbach (1990) | Micropterus salmoides, largemouth bass |
Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill |
Ceriodaphnia reticulata,
cladoceran |
Bluegill avoid bass predation by hiding in macrophyte vegetation and avoid openwater, releasing openwater zooplankton from predation. | freshwater | field | 70 | three-level | spatial shift | DMI†, TMI | no | zooplankton density | 1.0000 | 0.6931 | 0.0028 | 4 | 400 | Fig. 2 | |
| 44 | Turner and Mittelbach (1990) | Micropterus salmoides, largemouth bass |
Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill |
Chaoborus americanus, Chaoborus flavicans, phantom midges |
Bluegill avoid bass predation by hiding in macrophyte vegetation and avoid openwater, releasing openwater zooplankton from predation. | freshwater | field | 70 | three-level | spatial shift | DMI†, TMI | no | zooplankton density | 1.0000 | 0.6931 | 0.0001 | 4 | 400 | Fig. 2 | |
| 45 | Weissberger (1999) | Asterias forbesi, sea star,
Euspira heros, moon snail, predators act additively |
Spisula solidissima, surfclam |
Moon snails eat few clams, but elevate clam mortality when present with sea stars | marine | lab | 3 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | clam daily mortality rate | 0.9248 | 0.6548 | 0.0017 | 4 | 100 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 46 | Winkelman and Aho (1993) | Esox niger, pickerel |
Gambusia holbrooki, adult mosquitofish |
Gambusia holbrooki, juvenile mosquitofish, |
Adult mosquitofish shift habitats to avoid predators, releasing juvenile mosquito fish from cannibalism | freshwater | lab | 15 | three-level | spatial shift | DMI, TMI | no | survival of juvenile mosquitofish | 0.9999 | 0.6931 | 0.2457 | 4 | n/a | Fig. 1B | |
| 46 | Winkelman and Aho (1993) | Esox niger, pickerel |
Gambusia holbrooki, adult mosquitofish |
Gambusia holbrooki, juvenile mosquitofish, |
Adult mosquitofish shift habitats to avoid predators, releasing juvenile mosquito fish from cannibalism | freshwater | lab | 15 | three-level | spatial shift | DMI, TMI | no | survival of juvenile mosquitofish | 1.0000 | 0.6931 | 2.0207 | 4 | n/a | Fig. 1B | |
| 47 | Wissinger and McGrady (1993) | Tramea lacerata, dragonfly | Enallagma aspersum, damselfly | Ischnura verticalis, damselfly | Tramea sp. can eat Erythemis dragonflies and reduce Erythemis feeding rate on its damselfly prey | freshwater | lab | 14 | three-level | reduced activity | DMI, TMI | yes | number of damselflies eaten by Enallagma | 0.6954 | 0.5279 | 0.0009 | 4 | 80 | Figs. 4,5 | |
| 47 | Wissinger and McGrady (1994) | Erythemis simplicollis, dragonfly | Enallagma aspersum, damselfly | Ischnura verticalis, damselfly | Tramea sp. can eat Erythemis dragonflies and reduce Erythemis feeding rate on its damselfly prey | freshwater | lab | 14 | three-level | reduced activity | DMI, TMI | yes | number of damselflies eaten by Enallagma | 0.0996 | 0.0950 | 0.0352 | 4 | 80 | Figs. 4,5 | |
| 48 | Wissinger et al. (1999) | Ambystoma tigrinum, tiger salamander |
Asynarchus nigriculus, caddisfly |
Limnephilus externus, caddisfly |
Salamders modify behavior of intermediate predator, causing decreasing Limnephilus mortality | freshwater | lab | 10 | three-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | yes | survival out of 20 initial Limnephilus | 0.1603 | 0.1487 | 0.0152 | 4 | 20 | Fig. 7 | |
| 49 | Woodward and Hildrew (2002) | Cordulegaster boltonii, dragonfly nymph | Plectrocnemia conspersa | None observed | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | per capita prey emigration or mortality | 0.0024 | 0.0024 | 11339.0079 | 1 | 58 | Table 2 | ||
| 49 | Woodward and Hildrew (2002) | Cordulegaster boltonii, dragonfly nymph | Nemurella pictetii, stonefly | None observed | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | per capita prey emigration or mortality | 0.0328 | 0.0323 | 6.6993 | 1 | 400 | Table 2 |
†Only TMI was measured directly. However, there is evidence that the intermediate taxon in the cascade (the prey) experiences no density reduction. We therefore set DMI = Control since there is no density reduction of prey.
‡Variance of the preceeding column, ln(abs(RR) + 1).
§Secondary predator applies to cases where predator-predator facilitation generates a TME: the presence of the primary predator has a detrimental effect on the prey by increasing the prey's mortality to the secondary predator
b: RR calculated as ((TM – C)/C)/((total – c)/c)
c: RR calculated as ((TM – C)/C)/((TM – C)/C + (DM – c)/c)